Kings, Farmers, and Towns: Early States and Economies (c. 600 BCE–600 CE)

Theme Overview

This chapter explores the development of early political, economic, and social systems in India after the decline of the Harappan Civilization, roughly between 1500 BCE – 600 CE. It traces the emergence of states, towns, agriculture, trade, and administration, and shows how inscriptions and archaeology help historians reconstruct early Indian history.

1. Sources and Discoveries

• Epigraphy (study of inscriptions) and numismatics (study of coins) are key sources for understanding early India.
• In the 1830s, James Prinsep deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts, identifying Piyadassi as Ashoka.
• This enabled reconstruction of dynasties and political history.

2. The Sixteen Mahajanapadas

• Around 6th century BCE, India saw the rise of 16 powerful states, known as mahajanapadas — including Magadha, Kosala, Kuru, Panchala, Vajji, Avanti, etc.
• Some were monarchies, others oligarchies (ganas or sanghas).
• Each had fortified capitals, armies, and taxation systems.
• Magadha became dominant due to fertile land, iron ore in Jharkhand, elephants, and strong rulers like Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, and the Nandas.

3. The Mauryan Empire (321–185 BCE)

• Chandragupta Maurya founded the empire, which extended to Afghanistan and Baluchistan.
• His grandson Ashoka conquered Kalinga and inscribed edicts on rocks and pillars.
• Sources: Archaeology, Arthashastra (Kautilya), Indica (Megasthenes), Buddhist and Jaina texts.

Administration: – Centres: Pataliputra, Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali, Suvarnagiri.
– Officials managed army, irrigation, and taxes.
– Dhamma Mahamattas spread Ashoka’s ethical policy of kindness and tolerance.
– Control strongest near the capital and provincial centres.

4. Post-Mauryan Kingdoms and Kingship

Southern Chiefdoms: – Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas ruled chiefdoms where tribute replaced taxes.
– Described in Tamil Sangam literature.

Divine Kingship: – Kushanas (1st BCE – 1st CE) claimed divine status, calling themselves Devaputra (Son of God).
– Guptas (4th–6th CE) revived empire-building. Samudragupta’s Prayaga Prashasti praised him as godlike.

5. The Changing Countryside

• Agricultural expansion through iron ploughshare, paddy transplantation, and irrigation (tanks, wells, canals).
• Led to greater productivity but also inequality: large landowners (Gahapatis), small peasants, and landless laborers.
• Land grants became common—recorded on copper plates.
• Example: Prabhavati Gupta’s grant shows royal women’s property rights.
• Land grants expanded agriculture but reduced royal authority, creating new rural elites.

6. Towns and Trade

Urban Centres: – Major cities: Pataliputra, Ujjayini, Mathura, Puhar.
– Archaeology shows craft activity and Northern Black Polished Ware pottery.

Trade Networks: – Routes linked India to Central Asia, Rome, West Asia, and Southeast Asia.
– Exports: spices, textiles, ivory, gems.
– Imports: gold, coral, glass, metals.
– Text Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st CE) records Indo-Roman trade.

Coins and Economy: – Punch-marked coins (6th BCE) were earliest.
– Indo-Greek, Kushana, and Gupta coins carried royal images.
– Gupta gold coins reflected prosperity.
– Fewer gold finds after 6th CE — debated as circulation change or economic slowdown.

7. Deciphering Inscriptions

• Brahmi script deciphered by James Prinsep (1838).
• Kharosthi read using bilingual Indo-Greek coins.
• Titles Devanampiya Piyadassi confirmed as Ashoka.
• Epigraphists interpret incomplete or faint inscriptions with context.

8. Limits of Inscriptions

• Many are damaged, biased, or missing.
• Focus mainly on rulers and elites, ignoring common people’s lives.
• Historians cross-reference inscriptions with texts and archaeology for accuracy.

Timeline Highlights

Key Takeaways

• Early Indian states evolved from tribal communities to empires.
• Agriculture, trade, and coinage were the economic backbone.
• Religion and kingship intertwined—rulers claimed divine origin.
• Inscriptions are invaluable but limited sources for reconstructing history.